Models, Methods, and Artifacts

OVERVIEW 

This section provides a high level description of some commonly used models, methods, and artifacts that are useful in managing projects. The items listed in this section are not intended to be exhaustive or prescriptive, but rather to help project teams think about the options available to them.

In the context of this guide, terms are defined as follows : 

▶ 

Model. 

A model is a thinking strategy to explain a process, framework, or phenomenon. 

▶ 

Method. 

A method is the means for achieving an outcome, output, result, or project deliverable. 

▶ 

Artifact. 

An artifact can be a template, document, output, or project deliverable.

As project teams consider the tailoring questions in and decide on specific responses to those questions, they will start to build a framework for structuring their efforts to deliver the project outcomes. For example, project teams select specific methods to enable capturing and sharing the applicable information so they can track progress, improve project team performance in real time, and engage stakeholders.

Figure shows how tailoring includes the models and methods used to perform work in the project performance domains. The deliverables and the artifacts are also tailored to the project, internal environment, and external environment.

Tailoring to Fit the Project Context and Environment

As with any process, the use of models, methods, and artifacts has associated costs related to time, level of expertise/proficiency in use, impact on productivity, etc. Project teams should consider these implications when deciding which elements to use. As much as possible, project teams should avoid using anything that :

▶ 

Duplicates or adds unnecessary effort, 

▶ 

Is not useful to the project team and its stakeholders, 

▶ 

Produces incorrect or misleading information, or 

▶ 

Caters to individual needs versus those of the project team.

COMMONLY USED MODELS 

Models reflect small scale, simplified views of reality and present scenarios, strategies, or approaches for optimizing work processes and efforts. A model helps to explain how something works in the real world. Models can shape behavior and point to approaches for solving problems or meeting needs. Some models were developed with projects and project teams in mind, others are more general in nature. Where feasible, models in this section are presented as they apply to projects. The content in this section does not describe how to develop or create new models.

The model descriptions presented provide a high-level view. Project team members and other stakeholders can refer to many sources (e.g., PMI’s library of standards products and PMIstandards+™) for more complete descriptions and explanations of the models.

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODELS 

Situational leadership models are a subset of a vast array of leadership models. Just as project teams tailor the processes, methods, life cycles, and development approaches, leadership styles are also tailored. Situational leadership models describe ways to tailor one’s leadership style to meet the needs of the individual and the project team. The following are examples of two situational leadership models.

Situational Leadership II 

Ken Blanchard’s Situational Leadership II measures project team member development using competence and commitment as the two main variables. Competence is the combination of ability, knowledge, and skill. Commitment speaks to the confidence and motivation an individual has. As an individual’s competence and commitment evolve, leadership styles evolve from directing to coaching to supporting to delegating in order to meet the individual’s needs.

OSCAR Model 

The OSCAR coaching and mentoring model was developed by Karen Whittleworth and Andrew Gilbert. It helps individuals adapt their coaching or leadership styles to support individuals who have an action plan for personal development. The model refers to five contributing factors :

▶ 

Outcome. 

An outcome identifies the long term goals of an individual and the desired  result from each conversation session. 

▶ 

Situation. 

A situation enables conversation about the current skills, abilities, and knowledge level of the project team member ; why the person is at that level ; and how that level impacts the individual’s performance and peer relationships. 

▶ 

Choices/consequences. 

Choice and/or consequences identify all the potential avenues for attaining the desired outcome and the consequences of each choice so an individual can choose viable avenues for reaching their long term goals. 

▶ 

Actions. 

An action commits to specific improvements by focusing on immediate and attainable targets that an individual can work toward within a specified time frame. 

▶ 

Review. 

Holding regular meetings offers support and helps to ensure that individuals remain motivated and on track.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

Project success is dependent on effective communication. Communication models demonstrate concepts associated with how sender and receiver frames of reference impact the effectiveness of communication, how the communication medium influences the effectiveness of communication, and the types of disconnects between end user expectations and reality. With the prevalence of multicultural project teams and dispersed stakeholders, these models provide a way of viewing communication styles and methods to enhance communication efficiency and effectiveness. There are many communication models that demonstrate different aspects of communication. 

Cross Cultural Communication 

A communication model developed by Browaeys and Price incorporates the idea that the message itself and how it is transmitted is influenced by the sender’s current knowledge, experience, language, thinking, and communication styles, as well as stereotypes and relationship to the receiver. Similarly, the receiver’s knowledge, experience, language, thinking, and communication styles, as well as stereotypes and relationship to the sender will influence how the message is interpreted.

Effectiveness of Communication Channels 

Alistair Cockburn developed a model that describes the communication channels along the axes of effectiveness and richness. As defined by Richard Daft and Robert Lengel, richness relates to the amount of learning that can be transmitted through a medium. Media richness is a function of characteristics, including the ability to : 

▶ 

Handle multiple information cues simultaneously, 

▶ 

Facilitate rapid feedback, 

▶ 

Establish a personal focus, and 

▶ 

Utilize natural language.

Richness in communication allows a broad spectrum of information to be conveyed rapidly.  Situations that entail complex, complicated, and personal information benefit from richer communication channels, such as face to face communication. Situations that impart simple,  factual information can use less rich communication channels such as a note or a text message.

Gulf of Execution and Evaluation 

Donald Norman described the gulf of execution as the degree to which an item corresponds with what a person expects it to do. Said another way, it is the difference between the intention of a user and what the item allows them to do or supports them in doing. A car that has the ability to parallel park itself would have a gulf of execution if the driver expected to push a button labeled “park” and have the car park itself, and the car did not park itself

The gulf of evaluation is the degree to which an item supports the user in discovering how to interpret the item and interact with it effectively. The same parking example would show a gulf of evaluation if the controls were not designed in such a way that the driver could easily determine how to initiate the self parking function.

MOTIVATION MODELS 

People perform better when they are motivated, and people are motivated by different things. Understanding what motivates project team members and other stakeholders helps to tailor rewards to the individual, thereby eliciting more effective engagement. There are a significant number of models that illustrate how people are motivated. 

Hygiene and Motivational Factors 

Frederick Herzberg conducted a study of motivational factors in working life. He believed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from conditions called motivational factors. Motivational factors include matters that relate to the content of the work, such as achievement, growth, and advancement. Insufficient motivational factors lead to dissatisfaction. Sufficient motivational factors lead to satisfaction.

Herzberg also identified hygiene factors related to the work, such as company policies, salary, and the physical environment. If hygiene factors are insufficient, they cause dissatisfaction. However, even if they are sufficient, they do not lead to satisfaction.